Introduction
Kurdistan is not a country on most modern political maps, yet it represents one of humanity's oldest, most enduring civilizations. Stretching across the rugged mountains and fertile valleys of what is now Iraq, Iran, Turkey, and Syria, Kurdistan has been continuously inhabited for more than 12,000 years, making it one of humanity's first permanent homelands. From the earliest Neolithic farmers at Jarmo and Hallan Çemi to the builders of empires, medieval dynasties, and modern resistance movements, the Kurdish people have shaped, and been shaped by, every empire, religion, and revolution around them. Despite this deep-rooted presence, the Kurds remain one of the largest stateless nations in the world, numbering an estimated 65–70 million people.
Part 1: Prehistory The Zagros Cradle of Civilization (c. 12,000–3,000 BCE)
Shanidar Cave: Humanity's Deep Roots
The land known today as Kurdistan was among the earliest inhabited regions in the world. As the last Ice Age ended, the Zagros Mountains and the upper Tigris–Euphrates river basins became one of the centres of the Neolithic Revolution, where humans first began farming, domesticating animals, and living in permanent settlements.
Shanidar Cave, located in Bradost Mountain in Erbil Governorate, is one of the most important archaeological sites on Earth. The remains of ten Neanderthals, dating from roughly 65,000 to 35,000 years ago, have been found within its layers. The site is globally famous for the burial of Shanidar 4, who was laid to rest with pollen clusters that may represent wildflowers, suggesting one of the earliest known ritual burials in human history. In 2018, two more Neanderthal remains (Shanidar 11 and 12) were discovered, confirming the site's continuing importance.
Beyond the Neanderthal layers, Shanidar Cave contains proto-Neolithic cemeteries dating back roughly 10,600 BCE, with 35 individuals, considered by archaeologists to belong to the Natufian culture, a critical bridge between hunter-gatherer and settled farming life.
Hallan Çemi and Jarmo: The First Villages
By around 9,500 BCE, settlements like Hallan Çemi (in modern-day Batman province, Turkish Kurdistan) show evidence of permanent architecture, pig and goat domestication, and organized community life. Slightly later, Jarmo, located east of Kirkuk in Iraqi Kurdistan, demonstrates some of the earliest known examples of cereal agriculture and pottery. Robert Braidwood's famous excavations at Jarmo (1948–1955) pioneered the concept of the "hilly flanks" theory, that early farming developed along the well-watered slopes of the Zagros rather than on the lowland plains.
This long continuity of settlement links the Kurdish plateau to the earliest cultural and biological ancestors of modern humanity.
Genetic Continuity: The Zagros Neolithic People
Modern genomic research has confirmed that Kurdish populations today retain high genetic continuity with Neolithic farming populations of the Near East. Ancient DNA (aDNA) studies from sites like Ganj Dareh, Shanidar, and Tepe Abdul Hosein reveal a unique genetic signature identified in the literature as "Zagros Neolithic" or "Iran_N," constituting one of the primary founding groups of West Eurasian genetic diversity. These Zagros Neolithic inhabitants diverged from the lineage that led to Anatolian Neolithic farmers between 46,000 and 77,000 years ago, and the geographic isolation of the Zagros communities contributed to the preservation of their original DNA.
Kurdish populations, especially those in mountainous areas, retain higher levels of genetic continuity with Neolithic and pre-Neolithic individuals from the Zagros than their lowland neighbours, reflecting not just geography but cultural resilience and limited large-scale admixture events.
Part 2: The Zagrosian Language Thesis — Soran Hamarash's Contribution
Challenging Conventional Classifications
Kurdish scholar, historian, and linguist Soran Hamarash, who spent nearly 30 years studying Kurdish history and has broad knowledge of ancient languages such as Sumerian, Hurrian, and Hittite, presents a powerful thesis in his book The Lost and Untold History of the Kurds: Rediscovering the Beginning of the Western Civilisation and the Origin of the Indo-European Languages (Sulaymaniyah, 2022).
Hamarash calls Kurdish a "Zagrosian language", part of a unique linguistic continuum that comes from the Zagros civilization itself. He contends that external classifications of Kurdish frequently exhibit political and academic bias, influenced by eras when Kurdish scholarship was repressed or marginalized within formal institutions. Upon examination of its historical, archaeological, and cultural foundations, Kurdish emerges as an ancient indigenous language rather than a simple branch of the Indo-European tree that arrived from outside.
The Sumerian Connection
One of Hamarash's most provocative arguments is that Sumerian, traditionally considered an isolated language that ceased to be spoken around 4,000 years ago, evolved into a newer form still spoken by the Kurds. He further reveals linguistic connections between Sumerian and modern languages like English, French, German, and Russian, proposing a fresh perspective on the linguistic heritage of humanity.
Hamarash argues that the modern foundation of our understanding of ancient history was not established for the purpose of knowing the past, but rather to serve ideological, religious, and political agendas. This has led to non-objective approaches among scholars, resulting in a selective and isolated treatment of peoples in historical records. For the Kurds, this created "a lost and untold history."
It should be noted that Hamarash's thesis, particularly the Sumerian–Kurdish linguistic connection, has been challenged by some scholars, including Michael Gunter, who question the methodology and evidence base. Nevertheless, the book has opened an important debate about the indigenous roots of Kurdish civilisation and the biases embedded in conventional historiography.
Part III: Bronze Age and Tribal Kingdoms - Proto-Kurdish Identity Emerges (c. 3,000–1,000 BCE)
The Gutians, Lullubi, and Kassites
By the third millennium BCE, written records from Sumerian and Akkadian civilizations begin referencing highland peoples from the Zagros Mountains. These include the Gutians, Lullubi, and Kassites, tribal groups who frequently clashed with lowland Mesopotamian empires and were seen as both dangerous and independent.
- The Gutians briefly overthrew the Akkadian Empire and ruled Mesopotamia in the 22nd century BCE (c. 2135–2055 BC). They are traditionally viewed as precursors of the Kurdish people, and the name "Guti" is thought to survive in Kurdish geography, the mountain name Judi (Cûdî) being considered a corrupted form of Guti.
- The Lullubi were Zagrosian and Mesopotamian tribes who inhabited an area known as Lulubum. Their famous rock relief at Sarpol-e Sahab in Kermanshah shows the armed king Anubanini with a goddess (possibly Inanna/Ishtar), standing on conquered enemies. Their city Lulubuna has been identified with modern Halabja.
- The Kassites ruled Babylon for over 400 years (c. 1595–1155 BCE), demonstrating the deep influence of Zagros highlanders over greater Mesopotamian civilization. While the Kassite language is largely lost, their mountain provenance and cultural continuity connect them to later Kurdish communities.
While the exact ethnolinguistic identities of these early tribes remain debated, the geographic continuity, combined with oral traditions and linguistic evolution, suggest that these populations formed the foundation of what would later become a Kurdish identity.
Part 3: The Median Empire - The First Kurdish-Led State? (c. 850–550 BCE)
In the first millennium BCE, a tribal confederation known as the Medes rose to power in the central Zagros. They are widely regarded as an ancient Iranian-speaking people who shared cultural traits with later Kurdish groups.
The Median Empire, centred around Ecbatana (modern-day Hamadan, Iran), became a major regional power by the 7th century BCE. In 612 BCE, the Medes allied with the Babylonians to destroy the Assyrian Empire, one of the most powerful empires of the ancient world. This date of 612 BCE is considered by Kurdish nationalists as the beginning of the Kurdish era, reflected in the words of the Kurdish national anthem: "We are the children of the Medes and Kai Khosrow".
Although the Medes were eventually absorbed into the Achaemenid Persian Empire, many Kurds regard them as an early expression of Kurdish sovereignty and statehood. Scholars debate whether the Medes created a coherent "empire" in the modern sense, with some historians questioning whether the term "Median Empire" exaggerates what may have been a loose tribal confederation. Nevertheless, the Zagros highlands remained a stronghold for independent tribes and culturally distinct communities long after the fall of the Medes.
Medieval Armenian and Syriac sources often used the ethnic terms "Kurd" and "Mede" interchangeably, referring to the same group of people, pointing to a perceived historical continuity between the ancient Medes and later Kurds.
Part 4: From Classical Antiquity to Early Islam (c. 550 BCE – 1000 CE)
The Karduchoi and Corduene
Under the Persian Achaemenids (550–330 BCE), the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire, Roman–Parthian conflicts, and the Sassanian Empire (224–651 CE), the region of Kurdistan maintained its tribal independence while integrating into broader imperial structures.
Classical sources reference people with names resembling "Karduchoi" and "Corduene" terms many scholars link to early Kurds. The Karduchoi, described by Xenophon in The Anabasis (~401 BCE), were fierce highlanders who ambushed retreating Greek armies in the region between the Tigris and the Armenian Highlands.
Corduene (Korduene) emerged as a small kingdom in what is now southeastern Turkey and northern Iraq, gaining brief autonomy under Roman and Parthian patronage. While not a Kurdish state per se, Corduene is considered part of the early ethno-political space from which Kurds emerged.
The Coming of Islam
The coming of Islam in the 7th century brought major changes. Kurdish tribes gradually converted, often integrating into early Islamic governance and military structures. Some served as administrators and warriors for the Abbasid Caliphate, and by the 10th century the term "Kurd" began appearing more regularly in Arabic and Persian sources, not as a state, but as a recognizable people.
Part 5: The Medieval Period - Kurdish Emirates and Saladin (1000–1500 CE)
Kurdish Dynasties
As the centralised authority of the Abbasid Caliphate weakened, numerous Kurdish dynasties and emirates emerged, governing semi-independently across various parts of Kurdistan. Among the most notable were:
| Dynasty | Period | Territory |
| Shaddadids | 951–1199 CE | Parts of Caucasus and Azerbaijan |
| Rawadids | ~930–1071 CE | Tabriz and surrounding region |
| Hasanwayhids | 959–1015 CE | Western Iran (Luristan/Kurdistan) |
| Annazids | 991–1117 CE | Hulwan, Daquq, parts of Mesopotamia |
| Marwanids | 990–1085 CE | Diyarbakır and surroundings |
These emirates were not only political players; they were patrons of science, literature, and religious scholarship, building mosques, libraries, and schools.
Saladin (1137–1193): The Most Famous Kurd in History
Perhaps the most internationally recognised Kurdish figure, Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub (Saladin), was born around 1137 in Tikrit into a Kurdish family. He rose through military ranks to become the founder of the Ayyubid Dynasty, ruling Egypt, Syria, Upper Mesopotamia, the Hejaz, Yemen, and Nubia at the height of his power.
Saladin became legendary for his leadership during the Crusades, especially after recapturing Jerusalem on 2 October 1187, ending its nearly nine decades of occupation by the Franks. Western chroniclers admired him for his honour and restraint, while Muslim historians celebrated his military genius and piety. The Ayyubid dynasty ushered in an era of cultural and economic flourishing across much of the Middle East.
Though his empire was not a Kurdish nationalist project per se, Saladin's Kurdish identity is remembered with profound pride, and his name remains deeply revered in Kurdish national consciousness.
Part VII: Ottoman and Safavid Period - Autonomy, Fragmentation, and Survival (1500–1800 CE)
Between Two Empires
The 16th century brought significant changes as the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid Empire of Persia competed for dominance over Kurdistan. Many Kurdish emirates sided with the Ottomans due to the Sunni–Shia divide.
Sultan Selim I recognised the value of Kurdish support during wars against the Safavids, and several Kurdish emirates were granted hereditary autonomy in exchange for military loyalty. Notable semi-autonomous emirates included:
- Baban (centred on Sulaymaniyah, c. 1649–1850) founded the modern city of Sulaymaniyah in 1784 and encouraged the use of Sorani Kurdish among literary authors
- Soran (centred on Rawandiz) established before 1514 and later revived by Emir Kor (1816–1836), who conquered large swathes of territory
- Bohtan, Bahdinan, Bitlis, Hakkari, all maintained considerable internal governance
Cultural Flowering
This period of relative autonomy allowed Kurdish culture and leadership to flourish. Kurdish historians and poets such as Ali Hariri, Melayê Cizîrî, and Ehmedê Xanî emerged. Xanî's epic poem Mem û Zîn (late 17th century) is widely regarded as the foundation of modern Kurdish national literature, a tale of love, loyalty, and loss that also implicitly called for Kurdish unity and sovereignty.
Decline of Autonomy
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, both Ottoman and Persian states began centralising authority, leading to the gradual erosion of Kurdish autonomy:
- The Baban Emirate was dissolved in 1850 after a three-year revolt
- The Bohtan Emirate under Bedir Khan Beg resisted until the 1840s; his defeat marked the end of large-scale Kurdish self-rule
- The Soran Emirate under Emir Kor was ousted by Ottoman forces in 1836.
Part VIII: The Colonial Partition of Kurdistan (1918–1925)
The Treaty of Sèvres (1920): A Lost Promise
The collapse of the Ottoman Empire following World War I appeared to offer an opportunity for a Kurdish state. The Treaty of Sèvres (August 1920) proposed an autonomous Kurdistan and opened the door to full independence under Article 64. However, the treaty was never implemented as Turkish nationalist forces under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk rejected it entirely.
The Treaty of Lausanne (1923): The Erasure
The Treaty of Lausanne (1923) replaced Sèvres and became the foundation for modern Turkey's borders. It made no mention of Kurds or Kurdistan. Kurdistan was officially and permanently divided between four states:
| Country | Kurdish Region |
| Turkey | Northern Kurdistan (Bakurê Kurdistan) |
| Iraq | Southern Kurdistan (Başûrê Kurdistan) |
| Syria | Western Kurdistan (Rojava) |
| Iran | Eastern Kurdistan (Rojhilatê Kurdistan) |
There were no Kurdish representatives at Lausanne, and no international mechanisms protected Kurdish cultural or political rights.[3]
Part IX: Kurdish Uprisings and State Violence in the 20th Century
Turkey: Denial and Resistance
The newly established Republic of Turkey viewed ethnic pluralism as a threat to national unity. Kurdish language, dress, culture, and even the name "Kurd" were banned.
- Sheikh Said Rebellion (1925): The first major Kurdish uprising in modern Turkey, led by the Naqshbandi sheikh Şêx Seîdê Pîranî, was violently crushed. Sheikh Said and 47 followers were hanged in Diyarbakır.
- Ararat Rebellion (1930): Launched by the Xoybûn nationalist movement, it was crushed with overwhelming air and ground power.
- Dersim Massacre (1937–1938): The Turkish state launched a military campaign against the Alevi Kurdish population, resulting in the mass killing of between 13,000 and 40,000 people.
Iran: The Republic of Mahabad (1946)
In 1946, during the chaotic aftermath of WWII, the Republic of Mahabad was established as a short-lived Kurdish state in northwestern Iran, with Qazi Muhammad as president. Tribal leaders such as Mustafa Barzani served in the Mahabad army. The republic was crushed by the Iranian army by December 1946 following the Soviet withdrawal, and Qazi Muhammad was publicly executed. Though brief, Mahabad became a foundational myth in Kurdish nationalist history.
Iraq: The Anfal Campaign and Halabja Genocide
Under Saddam Hussein, Iraqi Kurdistan became the target of a state-sponsored genocide known as the Anfal Campaign (1986–1989), directed by Ali Hassan al-Majid ("Chemical Ali").
- Between February and September 1988, approximately 182,000 Kurdish civilians were killed during eight coordinated phases of military operations
- Over 4,000 villages and hundreds of small towns were demolished
- Chemical weapons, including mustard gas, tabun, sarin, and VX, were deployed against civilians.
- The most infamous atrocity: the Halabja massacre on 16 March 1988, killing between 3,200 and 5,000 people instantly, the largest chemical weapons attack directed against a civilian-populated region in human history.
In 2010, the Iraqi Supreme Court officially classified the Anfal Campaign as genocide.
Part X: Autonomy in Iraqi Kurdistan - From Rebellion to Self-Rule (1991–Present)
The Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG)
Following the 1991 Gulf War, a no-fly zone was established over northern Iraq, creating the political space for the Kurds to establish a de facto autonomous region. By 1992, the Kurdistan Regional Government was formally established with its capital in Erbil.
The 2003 U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, which overthrew Saddam Hussein, created new constitutional arrangements. The Iraqi Constitution of 2005 officially recognised the KRG as a federal entity, granting it significant autonomy in education, health, infrastructure, and foreign trade.
The 2017 Independence Referendum
On 25 September 2017, the KRG held an independence referendum. The result was overwhelming: over 92.73% voted "yes" for independence, with a turnout of 72.16%. However, the referendum triggered harsh reactions from Baghdad, Tehran, Ankara, and Washington. The Iraqi government launched military operations to retake Kirkuk, and international borders were closed. Despite its symbolic power, the referendum did not lead to recognised independence, yet it solidified Kurdish determination and sent a powerful message that the aspiration for a sovereign Kurdish state remains undiminished.
Part XI: Rojava - Kurdish Autonomy and Democratic Confederalism in Syria
As the Syrian Civil War erupted in 2011, the Kurdish regions of northern Syria, known in Kurdish as Rojava ("the West"), were thrust into a political and military vacuum. Kurdish parties, particularly the PYD and its armed wing the YPG, quickly organised local defence and governance.
The Rojava self-administration established a unique system built on decentralised local councils, gender equality (co-leadership for all offices), religious and ethnic pluralism, and grassroots democracy, influenced by the writings of imprisoned PKK leader Abdullah Öcalan.
The world took notice during the siege of Kobani (2014–2015), when YPG and YPJ (Women's Protection Units) forces held off ISIS militants for months. Backed by U.S. airstrikes, the Kurds became instrumental in defeating the Islamic State across northeastern Syria.
Turkey, viewing the PYD and YPG as extensions of the PKK, launched multiple invasions, occupying Afrin (2018) and parts of northern Syria (2019), leading to mass displacement and allegations of war crimes.
Part XII: Cultural Renaissance and the Politics of Symbolism
Language Revitalisation
Despite repeated efforts by dominant states to suppress Kurdish language and culture, a deep cultural renaissance has taken hold. For much of the 20th century, speaking Kurdish was criminalised in several states. Yet Kurdish survived. Today, Kurmanji, Sorani, Hewrami/Zazaki, and other dialects are being revitalised through digital media, diaspora publishing, and cultural autonomy in Iraq and parts of Syria.
Soran Hamarash's research underscores this point: the academic view claiming Kurds were nomadic until 800–900 years ago is contradicted by the fact that Kurds wrote their history during the ninth century, and a poem in Sorani exists from 900 years ago. Every day, new manuscripts appear that disprove conventional knowledge.
National Symbols
Kurdish cultural symbolism, the flag with its golden sun and vibrant tricolour bands (red, green, yellow), Newroz celebrations at the spring equinox, and the legacy of Saladin, has become inseparable from Kurdish collective memory. Newroz has evolved from a seasonal festival into an act of political defiance, a fire-lit renewal of resistance in cities from Diyarbakır to Mahabad.
Concluding Reflection
Kurdistan is one of the world's largest nations without a state, but its history stretches deeper than most existing states. From Neolithic farmers who settled the Zagros foothills over 12,000 years ago to modern Kurdish fighters defending their communities against the world's most violent extremists, the Kurdish people have never abandoned their land, or their identity.
As Soran Hamarash argues, the "cradle of civilisation" was Kurdistan, the land that hosted the stories of Abraham and Noah, the birthplace of agriculture and writing. The story of Kurdistan is not only about what has been lost or denied. It is also about what continues to survive, grow, and inspire. In a world increasingly aware of indigenous rights and the importance of cultural preservation, the Kurdish people stand as a living testament to resistance, resilience, and renewal.
Kurdistan may not yet be a state, but it is undeniably a nation, with a history, a homeland, and a voice that refuses to be silenced.